Claudins as markers for early detection, diagnosis, prognosis and as targets of therapy for breast and metastatic brain or bone cancer

ABSTRACT

Methods of diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of breast cancer, and of metastatic brain cancer, are provided The diagnostic and prognostic methods involve the immunohistochemical detection of the level of expression of the proteins claudin 1, 3, 4, and 7 in tissue or cell samples. Claudins 1 and 7 are underexpressed in the majority of breast cancers, and claudins 3 and 4 are overexpressed. The methods of treatment involve the use of  Clostridium perfringens  enterotoxin (or a variant thereof) to lyse metastatic cancer cells in the brain and bone that overexpress claudins 3 and 4.

This application claims priority to international patent applicationPCT/US03/04371, filed Feb. 14, 2003, which in turn claims priority toU.S. provisional patent application 60/356,860, filed Feb. 14, 2002 and60/424,222, filed Nov. 6, 2002, the complete contents of which arehereby incorporated by reference.

This invention was made using funds from grants from the Department ofDefense having grant numbers DAMD17-01-0285 and DAMD17-02-1-0429. TheUnited States government may have certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The invention generally relates to the diagnosis, prognosis, andtreatment of cancer. In particular, the invention provides the use ofclaudin proteins as targets for detection and treatment of primaryepithelial cancers and metastatic brain and bone cancer.

2. Background of the Invention

Breast cancer therapies have shown limited efficacy in patients withadvanced disease making early diagnosis essential for long-termsurvival. Although many advances in diagnostic, prognostic, andtherapeutic methods have been made over the last several years, breastcancer remains the second leading cause of cancer death in women and theleading cause of death in women between the ages of 40 and 55. Thus,there is an ongoing need for new and improved diagnostic, prognostic,and therapeutic techniques related to this disease.

Further, few effective therapies for metastatic brain or bone cancer arecurrently available, and there is an ongoing need for promising therapyfor these diseases as well.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It is an object of this invention to provide methods of diagnosis,prognosis, and treatment of breast cancer, and of metastatic brain andbone cancer. The diagnostic and prognostic methods involve theimmunohistochemical detection of the level of expression of the proteinsclaudin 1, 3, 4, and 7 in tissue or cell samples. Claudins 1 and 7 areunderexpressed in the majority of breast cancers, and claudins 3 and 4are overexpressed. The methods of treatment involve the use ofClostridium perfringens enterotoxin (or a variant thereof) or othercytotoxic agents targeted against claudins 3 and/or 4 to lyse cancercells that express claudins 3 and 4.

The invention thus provides a method for diagnosing breast cancer ormetastasis in a patient, comprising the steps of determining a level ofexpression of at least one claudin in a tissue or cell sample. In themethod, the claudin may be claudin 1, claudin 3, claudin 4, or claudin7. The second step of the method is to assess whether claudins 3 or 4are expressed at a level which is higher than a predetermined level, orwhether or not claudins 1 or 7 are expressed at a level which is lowerthan a predetermined level. Cancer or metastasis is implicated whenclaudins 3 or 4 are at or above the predetermined level, or whenclaudins 1 or 7 are at or below the predetermined level. The cancer ofmetastasis may be breast cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, kidneycancer, prostate cancer, pancreas cancer, ovarian cancer, thyroidcancer, gastric cancer, head and neck cancer, and skin cancer. In oneembodiment, the method is carried out by exposing the sample to at leastone antibody to a claudin (for example, an antibody to claudins 1, 3, or4, or any combination of these). The antibody may be directed to aC-terminal region of CLDN-7, for example, an antibody to SEQ ID NO. 1(described below).

The method may further include the step of obtaining a sample of cellsof interest from a patient, e.g. as a biopsy tissue sample or fromductal lavage fluid. In one embodiment of the invention, the claudinsare claudins-3 or -4, or both, and said sample is blood.

The method may further comprise the step of determining a grade of asample containing cells of interest. Such a determination is based on anassessment made in said assessing step, and wherein the tumor grade islow if staining for claudin-7 is high, or the tumor grade is high isstaining for claudin-7 is low.

The present invention further provides a method of killing cancer cellsthat express claudins-3 or -4, or both claudins-3 and -4. The methodcomprises the step of exposing the cancer cells to molecules therecognize claudin-3 or claudin-4, and the molecules either kill thecancer cells or deliver cytotoxic agents that kill the cancer cells. Inone embodiment of the invention, the molecules include Clostridiumperfringens enterotoxin in sufficient quantities to lyse the cancercells. The Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin may be truncated by 45amino acids at the amino terminus, and may be encapsulated in vesselssuch as liposomes, biodegradable synthetic polymer wafers, ormicro-spheres. In one embodiment, the Clostridium perfringensenterotoxin is part of a chimeric protein comprising a matrixmetalloprotease that is over-expressed by breast tumors. In anotherembodiment, the molecules include antibodies that recognize claudin-3 orclaudin-4, or both. The antibodies that recognize claudin-3 orclaudin-4, or both may be attached to cytotoxic agent the kill cancercells. In yet another embodiment, the cytotoxic agents may be containedwithin vessels such as liposomes, biodegradable synthetic polymerwafers, or micro-spheres. In another embodiment, antibodies thatrecognize claudin-3 or claudin-4 (or both) are attached to the vessels.

The cancer cells may be breast cancer cells, lung cancer cells, coloncancer cells, kidney cancer cells, prostate cancer cells, pancreascancer cells, ovarian cancer cells, thyroid cancer cells, gastric cancercells, head and neck cancer cells, and skin cancer cells. The cancercells may be metastatic, and in some embodiments are located in apatient's brain or bone.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: CLDN-7 mRNA expression in invasive ductal carcinomas, unculturedluminal (Lum) and myoepithelial (Myo) human mammary epithelial cells(uncultured HMEC), and human mammary epithelial cells cultured in vitro(cultured HMEC).

Total RNA was extracted and cDNA was generated by reverse transcription.CLDN-7 and GAPDH (a “housekeeping” gene) were amplified individually byreal-time PCR. CLDN-7 expression levels were normalized to levels ofGAPDH, multiplied by (10)³, and reported in arbitrary units +/−s.d. Dataare from experiments performed in triplicate.

FIG. 2: Claudin-7 polyclonal antibody production and detection by ELISA.

Rabbit anti-human Claudin-7 pAb was raised against the syntheticpolypeptide (CKAGYRAPRSYPKSNSSKEYV) (SEQ ID NO:1), which corresponds tothe C-terminus of human Claudin-7. The presence of Claudin-7 polyclonalantibody in rabbit sera was determined by ELISA. 96-well plates werecoated over night with synthetic polypeptide at a concentration of 600ng/50 ul. Plates were dried and incubated at room temperature (RT) inblocking buffer (50 g Milk/L PBS) for 2 hrs. Rabbit antisera was dilutedin PBS, added to plate, and incubated for 2 hours at RT. Presence ofClaudin-7 pAb was visualized using anti-rabbit secondary antibodyconjugated to horse radish peroxidase (HRP) at 490 nm.

FIGS. 3A and B. Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin efficiently lyseshuman breast cancer cells expressing Claudins 3 and 4 while it has noeffect on human breast cancer cells lacking Claudin 3 and 4 expression.Cells were plated at 3×10⁵ cells/well in 6-well plates and grown to 80%confluence. Media was then removed and replaced with fresh media with orwithout CPE at concentration ranging from 0.05 to 4 ug/ml. Cells wereincubated at 37° C. for 60 min. Floating and attached cells werecollected and counted using a hemocytometer. Cell viability wasdetermined by trypan blue (0.4%) dye exclusion. Data from representativeexperiments are expressed as % cytotoxicity as compared to media control+/−S.D. A, results from CLDN-3,4 positive cells; B, results fromCLDN-3,4 negative cells.

FIGS. 4A and B. Treatment of T47D human breast cancer cell xenograftswith Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin results in a reduction of tumorvolume. T47D cells (1×10⁷) were resuspended in matrigel andsubcutaneously injected bilaterally in the flank of 6-8 week old SCIDmice. Tumors were grown to approximately 100 mm³ prior to CPE treatment.CPE (A=2 ug, B=10 ug) was administered intratumorally on days 1, 3, 5,7, 9, 11, and 13. Tumor volumes were measured using a caliper andreported +/−sd. Each experiment is representative of 6 animals.Reduction in CPE-treated tumor size (B) on day 14 relative to day 1 wasfound to be significant by Student's t-test (p=0.007).

FIG. 5. Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin efficiently lyses rat breastcancer cells (NMU 36/NMU 58) expressing Claudins 3 and 4 while it has noeffect on NIH 3T3 cells lacking Claudin 3 and 4 expression. Cells wereplated at 3×10⁵ cells/well in 6-well plates and grown to 80% confluence.Media was then removed and replaced with fresh media with or without CPEat concentration ranging from 0.05 to 4 ug/ml. Cells were incubated at37° C. for 60 min. Floating and attached cells were collected andcounted using a hemocytometer. Cell viability was determined by trypanblue (0.4%) dye exclusion. Data from representative experiments areexpressed as % cytotoxicity as compared to media control +/−S.D.

FIG. 6A-D. Recombinant CPE treatment of Sprague-Dawley NMU-inducedbreast tumor results in a reduction in tumor volume. Sprague-DawleyNMU-induced tumors were injected intraductally with (A, B) 17 ug CPE ondays 1, 5, and 11 or (C, D) 30 ug CPE on days 1, 7, 9, 14, 16, 19, 22,and 26 versus PBS alone. Tumor volumes were measured using a caliper.Each graph is representative of 1 tumor.

FIG. 7. Intraductal administration of native CPE significantly inhibitsthe growth of NMU-induced rat mammary tumors. Female Sprague-Dawley rats(3-6 weeks old) were injected with 50 mg/kg NMU i.p. CPE wasadministered ID at 3 or 5 μg/injection once every three days for 30 daysonce tumors grew to a size of 100 mm³. Tumor size was measured usingcalipers three times per week. Significant differences in tumor sizebetween CPE-treated and Control tumors was determined by Student'st-test.

FIG. 8. Intracranial administration of CPE significantly increases thesurvival of mice with established breast cancer metastasis to the brain.MDA-MB-468 human breast cancer cells were injected intracranially intoathymic nude mice. Following the establishment of solid tumor, mice wereadministered intracranial injections of either 0.5 μg CPE or PBS threetimes per week for two weeks. Animals were observed for signs ofneurological complications resulting from tumor burden and sacrificedwhen moribund.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides diagnostic and prognostic methods for thedetection of breast cancer. The methods are based on the discovery thatcertain tight junction proteins, namely claudins 1, 3, 4, and 7, aredifferentially expressed in breast cancer cells. In particular, claudins1 and 7 are underexpressed in breast cancer cells and tissue, comparedto normal breast cells and tissue, while claudins 3 and 4 areoverexpressed in breast cancer cells and tissue, compared to normalbreast cells and tissue. Thus, the detection of the expression (or lackthereof) of one or more of claudins 1, 3, 4 and 7 provides a means ofdetermining whether or not cells or tissue from the breast aremalignant. Such detection methods may be used, for example, for earlydiagnosis of the disease, to monitor the progress of the disease or theprogress of treatment protocols, or to assess the grade of the cancer.The grade of the cancer is related to the progression of disease andthus aides in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment considerations.

The detection of the expression profile of claudins 1, 3, 4 and/or 7 inbreast cells may be carried out by any of several means well known tothose of skill in the art. In a preferred embodiment of the presentinvention, the method of detecting claudins 1, 3, 4 and/or 7 isimmunological in nature. By ‘immunological’, we mean that antibodies(e.g., monoclonal antibodies) specific for claudins 1, 3, 4 or 7, willbe used. By “specific for claudins 1, 3, 4 or 7” we mean antibodies thatrecognize claudin 1, 3, 4, or 7 while not cross-reacting with samplescontaining other proteins.

The antibodies which can be used according to the method of theinvention can be monoclonal antibodies prepared using hybridoma fusiontechniques or can be derived from known secreting myeloma cell lines.Those of skill in the art will recognize that many techniques areavailable for the production of monoclonal antibodies.

While in a preferred embodiment of the present invention the method ofdetection of claudins is by utilizing monoclonal antibodies, those ofskill in the art will recognize that other methods of detection can alsobe used in the practice of the invention. For example, polyclonalantibodies raised against a claudin (or fragment thereof) might also beused in various immuno assays. For example, in a preferred embodiment ofthe invention, for the detection of claudin 7, a polyclonal antibodyagainst a synthetic polypeptide with the sequence CKAGYRAPRSYPKSNSSKEYV,(SEQ ID NO: 1) which corresponds to the C-terminus of human claudin-7 isused.

Many antibody detection systems are known to those of skill in the artand can be employed within the scope of the present invention. Forexample, the antibody may be diagnostically labeled. The term“diagnostically labeled” means that the antibody has attached to it adiagnostically detectable label. Many such labels and methods ofconjugating labels to antibodies are well-known to those of skill in theart. Examples of types of labels which can be used in the practice ofthe present invention include but are not limited to fluorescent labels,enzyme labels, and radionuclide labels, specific binding paircomponents, colloidal dye substances, fluorochromes, reducingsubstances, latexes, digoxigenin, metals, particulates, dansyl lysine,antibodies, protein A, protein G, electron dense materials, chromophoresand the like. Any suitable label, whether directly or indirectlydetectable, may be employed. One skilled in the art will recognize thatthese labels set forth above are merely illustrative of the differentlabels that could be utilized in this invention.

Many methods employing antibodies which specifically bind targetsubstances are known in the art. Preferred methods includeimmunochemical methods, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) methods, immunonophelometry methods, agglutination methods,precipitation methods, immunodiffusion methods, immunoelectrophoresismethods, immunofluorescent methods, and radioimmunoassay methods. Assaysfor detecting the presence of proteins and/or peptides with antibodieshave been previously described and follow known formats, such as astandard blot and ELISA formats. These formats are normally based onincubating an antibody with a sample suspected of containing the proteinor peptide and detecting the presence of a complex between the antibodyand the protein or peptide. The antibody is labeled either before,during or after the incubation step. Immobilization is usually requiredand may be accomplished by immobilizing the protein or peptide to asolid surface, such as a microtiter well, or by binding the protein toimmobilized antibodies.

In a preferred embodiment, the claudin(s) is bound to an immobilizedfirst antibody. A second labeled antibody, also specific for theclaudin, or specific for the first antibody, is then bound, unboundmaterial is washed away, and the complex is detectable due to theimmobilized label of the second antibody. Such assays are well-known tothose of skill in the art and include such assays as simultaneoussandwich, forward sandwich and reverse sandwich immunoassays, termswhich are well-known to those of skill in the art.

Many solid phase immunoabsorbents for immobilization are known and canbe used in the practice of the present invention. Well-knownimmunoabsorbents include beads formed from glass, polystyrene,polypropylene, dextran, nylon and other material; and tubes formed fromor coated with such materials, and the like. The immobilized antibodiesmay be covalently or physically linked to the solid phase immunosorbentby techniques such as covalent bonding via an amide or ester linkage orby absorption.

In each of the above assays, the details of the assay protocol, such astime and temperature of incubation, may vary according to theconcentration of antibodies used, the source and form of the sample, theaffinity of the antibodies for their target molecules, etc. In apreferred embodiment of the present invention, an ELISA assay may becarried out as follows: 96-well microtiter plates are coated with amonoclonal first antibody specific for a claudin 1, 3, 4 and/or 7. Thefirst antibody is immobilized in the wells. Standards and samples arepipetted into wells in, for example, duplicate or triplicate, and anyclaudin present in the standards and samples will be bound by theimmobilized antibody. The standards are composed of known concentrationsof claudin, which is known to be crossreactive with the first antibody.After incubation at room temperature for 2 hours, the wells are washedwith an appropriate buffer to remove any unbound substances. Then asecond enzyme-linked polyclonal (or monoclonal) antibody specific forclaudin (or for the primary antibody) is added to the wells. After a 1hour incubation at room temperature, the wells are again washed with anappropriate buffer to remove unbound antibody-enzyme reagent, and asolution which contains a substrate for the enzyme is added to thewells. The substrate is such that when it is acted on by the enzyme, acharacteristic color is produced. Color will develop in proportion tothe amount of enzyme present in the wells, which is directlyproportional to the amount of bound claudin. After an appropriate periodof time, the color development is stopped and the intensity of the colorwill be measured spectrophotometrically. The amount of claudin in thesamples will be determined by comparing the color intensity of thesample wells to that of the control wells which contain a known amountof claudin.

The antibodies to be employed in the practice of the present inventionare specific for claudin 1, 3, 4, and/or 7 and may be specific for anyepitope of claudin 1, 3, 4, and/or 7. The antibodies may be raisedagainst purified samples of a synthetic peptide having a sequenceidentical to that of claudin 1, 3, 4, and/or 7, either the full-lengthnative form of the protein, or to proteolytic or synthetic fragmentsthereof. Those of skill in the art will readily recognize that there arenumerous established protocols available for generating antibodies tospecific peptides and proteins.

Various types of immuno assays which might be utilized in the practiceof the present invention include but are not limited toimmunoelectrophoresis, nephelometry, gel electrophoresis followed byWestern blot, dot blots, affinity chromatography, immuno-fluorescence,and the like. In addition, other methods of detection of peptides knownto those of skill in the art may be used in the practice of the currentinvention, such as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, HPLC, and gelelectrophoresis followed by sequencing.

In general, such methods involve obtaining a sample to be tested. Suchsamples may be obtained by any of many methods known to those of skillin the art. For example, the cells and/or tissue may be from a biopsysample. More preferably, since the method is designed to detect breastcancer at very early stages, the sample may be ductal lavage fluid whichmay contain cells with altered claudin expression before a recognizabletumor mass has developed. Further, the sample may also be blood sincethe detection of claudins 3 and 4 in blood may be indicative of thepresence of tumors or metastasis.

The sample of cells or tissue is prepared and exposed to the antibody ora mixture of antibodies according to means which are known to those ofskill in the art. Briefly, tissue sample may be obtained by biopsy,lumpectomy, or mastectomy. Samples are then paraffin embedded andsectioned for immunohistochemical analysis of gene expression. cells maybe obtained by ductal lavage and/or collection of blood. Red blood cellsare then removed from whole blood by lysis in H₂O. Protein is thenextracted from the remaining mixture of leukocytes and cancer cells orductal lavage fluid. Equal amounts of protein are then absorbed to a96-well plate over night for ELISA based assay. Alternatively, serum maybe separated from blood samples. Proteins are then immobilized to asolid support for ELISA based assay.

The present invention further provides a kit for use in, for example,the screening, diagnosis or monitoring of breast cancer. Such a kit maycomprise antibodies to claudins 1, 3, 4 and/or 7, a reaction container,various buffers, secondary antibodies, directions for use, and the like.In these kits, antibodies may be provided with means for binding todetectable marker moieties or substrate surfaces. Alternatively, thekits may include antibodies already bound to marker moieties orsubstrates. The kits may further include positive and/or negativecontrol reagents as well as other reagents for carrying out diagnostictechniques. For example, kits containing antibody bound to multiwellmicrotiter plates can be provided. The kit may include a standard ormultiple standard solutions containing a known concentrations ofclaudins or other proteins for calibration of the assays. A large numberof control samples will be assayed to establish the threshold, mode andwidth of the distribution of claudins 1, 3, 4 and 7 in normal cells andtissues against which test samples will be compared. These data will beprovided to users of the kit.

In general, in order to be considered significantly over expressed (i.e.to be considered “positive” for the presence of the claudin), a claudinwill be detected as present or in an amount of about 10 to about 100% ormore above the known, standardized level of normal control tissue, ormore preferably from about 25 to about 100% or more above the known,standardized level of normal control tissue. In general, in order to beconsidered significantly under expressed, a claudin will be detected aspresent or in an amount of about 25 to about 75% or more below theknown, standardized level of normal control tissue, or more preferablyfrom about 50 to about 100% or more lower than the known, standardizedlevel of normal control tissue. By “known, standardized level of normalcontrol tissue” we mean that level detected in equivalent tissue derivedfrom disease-free individuals. Further, such comparisons are typicallymade in comparison to a known negative control, such as tissue known tobe devoid of the antigen being detected.

Other means of detecting the expression profile of claudins 1, 3, 4and/or 7 include but are not limited to, for example, detection of mRNAencoding one or more of the proteins. Those of skill in the art are wellacquainted with methods of mRNA detection, e.g. via the use ofcomplementary hybridizing primers (e.g. labeled with radioactivity orfluorescent dyes) with or without polymerase chain reaction (PCR)amplification of the detected products, followed by visualization of thedetected mRNA via, for example, by electrophoresis (e.g gel orcapillary); by mass spectroscopy; etc. Any means of detecting thepresence of the mRNA in excess over a normal or baseline control (or todetect the absence of the mRNA compared to such a control) may be usedin the practice of the present invention.

Further, in an assay designed to detect the expression profile orpattern of claudins 1, 3, 4 and/or 7, in breast cells or tissue, atleast one but possibly two, three or all four of claudins 1, 3, 4 and 7may be assayed. This may be true, for example, where the detection ofclaudin 7 is involved since it is expressed at very low levels or not atall in about 70% of breast carcinomas. Thus, advantages may accrue byassaying for claudin 7 together with one or more of the claudinssimultaneously as a panel. Such a profile or panel may be designedaccording to guidelines which are well-known to those of skill in theart.

Since claudin 7 is expressed at very low levels or not at all in about70% of breast carcinomas, it is possible that its reintroduction intobreast cancer cells would impair the ability of breast cancer cells tometastasize. Thus, the invention also encompasses a method of preventingthe metastasis of breast cancer cells by reintroducing claudin 7 intobreast tumor cells, or alternatively, by inducing expression of claudin7 in breast cancer cells. Means of carrying out this aspect of theinvention are known to those of skill in the art. For example, a vectorcontaining DNA encoding claudin 7 may be introduced into the breastcancer cells via gene therapy techniques. Alternatively, the claudin 7protein may be introduced into the cells via tagging the claudin proteinto a Trojan peptide (e.g. HOX proteins, TGF-β, etc.) or attachingclaudin 7 to ligands or receptors expressed on breast cancer cells, etc.Administering there agents intraductally would confine the uptake to thebreast epithelial cells lining the ducts, and tumors arising from theseepithelia.

Claudins 3 and 4 are known to be overexpressed in breast cancer cells.Therefore, in yet another aspect, the present invention also providestargeted antibody and T-cell immunotherapy for breast cancer. Humanizedmonoclonal antibodies specific for claudin 3 and 4 are generated. Theseantibodies are administered systemically or locally. The binding of theantibody to cancer cells expression claudin 3 and 4 will result incancer cell death by subsequent recognition and attack by cytotoxicT-cells or other immune cells participating in antibody dependent cellcytotoxicity (ADCC) reactions (e.g. natural killer cells, macrophages,etc.). Alternatively, cytotoxic molecules may be conjugated to claudin 3and 4 antibodies allowing targeted delivery of cytotoxic compounds tothe cancer cells. Examples of such cytotoxic agents include but are notlimited to Doxil, Pseudomonas exotoxin, and paclitaxel. Additionally,claudin-3 and -4 antibodies can be attached to the exterior of vesselscontaining cytotoxic agents, which are designed for slow agent release,including liposomes and biodegradable synthetic polymer wafers ormicro-spheres. Vaccines consisting of irradiated tumor cellsoverexpressing claudins, with or without augmentation with cytokines,could also result in the generation of T-cells that specificallyrecognize over-expressed claudins on tumor cells and cause cytotoxicity.

Claudins 3 and 4 are known to function as receptors for Clostridiumperfringens enterotoxin (CPE). When cells which express claudins 3 and 4are exposed to CPE, the toxin binds to the cells, induces formation of apore in the cell membrane, and causes lysis of the cells. Becauseclaudins 3 and 4 are expressed in epithelial cancer cells, CPE can beused to treat epithelial cancers. Exposure of epithelial cancer cells(e.g. breast cancer cells, prostate cancer cells, pancreas cancer cells,etc.) to CPE results in binding of the toxin to the cells,internalization and lysis of the cancer cells. In the case of breastcancer, the reduced sensitivity of normal mammary epithelial cellsrelative to breast cancer cells allows CPE to preferentially destroybreast cancer cells. In many cases, lysis will cause death of the cells.However, those of skill in the art will recognize that the method maystill be valuable if all cells are not necessarily killed outright, butare damaged so as to slow their rate of replication and/or growth, ormade more susceptible to other types of treatment such as radiation orchemotherapy. Further, it is understood that the methods of the presentinvention may be practiced in conjunction with other cancer treatmentprotocols such as radiation, chemotherapy, etc.

In one embodiment of the invention, the entire, native CPE toxinmolecule (GenBank Accession #M98037) is utilized for the treatment ofbreast cancer. However, those of skill in the will recognize that thepractice of the present invention need not be limited to the use of theentire native sequence. Several active forms or variants of CPE areknown or can be designed by well-known, routine, genetic engineeringtechniques and can also be utilized in the practice of the presentinvention. For example, with respect to amino acid sequences, variantsmay exist or be constructed which display: conservative amino acidsubstitutions; non-conservative amino acid substitutions; truncation by,for example, deletion of amino acids at the amino or carboxy terminus,or internally within the molecule; or by addition of amino acids at theamino or carboxy terminus, or internally within the molecule (e.g. theaddition of a histidine tag for purposes of facilitating proteinisolation, the substitution of residues to alter solubility properties,the replacement of residues which comprise protease cleavage sites toeliminate cleavage and increase stability, the addition or eliminationof glycosylation sites, and the like, or for any other reason). Suchvariants may be naturally occurring (e.g. as a result of naturalvariations between species or between individuals); or they may bepurposefully introduced (e.g. in a laboratory setting using geneticengineering techniques). All such variants of the sequences disclosedherein are intended to be encompassed by the teaching of the presentinvention, provided the variant CPE retains the ability to bind toclaudin 3 and 4 receptors, and to lyse the cell to which it binds.Preferably, amino acid sequence identity of such variants when comparedto native CPE will be in the range of about 50 to about 100%, and morepreferably in the range of about 75 to about 100%, and most preferablyin the range of about 80 to about 100%. The identity is with referenceto the portion of the amino acid sequence that corresponds to theoriginal native sequence, i.e. not including additional elements thatmight be added, such as those described below for chimeric proteins.Further, such a variant will retain at least from about 50 to 100% ormore of the ability to bind to claudins 3 and 4 and preferably willretain about 75 to 100% or more of the ability to bind to claudins 3 and4. Further, such a variant will retain cell lysing activity of nativeCPE in the range of about 50 to 100% or more, or preferably in the rangeof about 75 to 100% or more. By “cell lysing activity” we mean theability to initiate the production of pores in the cell membrane,leading to rupture and lysis of the cell, and typically cell death.

In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the CPE variant is one inwhich the N-terminal 45 amino acids of CPE have been removed to generatea CPE protein known to exhibit twice the cytotoxicity of native CPE. Theuse of a variant with enhanced cytotoxicity will allow an increasedlevel of drug activity thereby increasing therapeutic efficacy atanatomical sites where injection volume is limiting (e.g. injection ofsolid tumors, brain, bone, etc.).

The invention also encompasses chimeric CPE toxin molecules, forexample, CPE proteins comprised of native CPE (or a variant as describedabove) plus additional sequences which are not necessarily associatedwith CPE, but the addition of which conveys some additional benefit. Forexample, such benefit may have utility in isolation and purification ofthe protein, (e.g. histidine tag, GST, and maltose binding protein); orin directing the protein to a particular intracellular location (e.g.yeast secretory protein). All such chimeric constructs are intended tobe encompassed by the present invention, provided the portion of suchconstruct that is based on CPE is present in at least the indicatedlevel of homology. In a preferred embodiment, CPE will be linked to amacromolecule (e.g. a protein, or a polypeptide) that is expressedexclusively by malignant epithelial cells or tissue in order to morespecifically target epithelial cancer cells and allow for systemicdelivery of the CPE. Examples of such macromolecules include but are notlimited to: proteases such as matrix metalloproteases which are known tobe over-expressed by various epithelial tumors; breast tumor-associatedstromal elements, breast tumor vasculature, etc.

For the purposes of treating breast cancer, delivery of the CPE or CPEvariant can be carried out by any suitable means, many of which areknown to those of skill in the art. Because some non-cancerous cellsalso express claudin 3 and 4, in preferred embodiments of the invention,the CPE is delivered directly to the site of a tumor to avoid systemiclysis of otherwise healthy tissue. Examples of methods of directdelivery include but are not limited to direct injection into a tumorbed, topical application, and the like. In a preferred embodiment of theinvention, delivery to breast tumors will be intraductal, for example,as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,330,472 (Sukumar et al., issued Dec. 11,2001), the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference.The CPE may be delivered in any suitable form, many of which are knownto those of skill in the art. For example, the CPE may be containedwithin vessels including but not limited to liposomes and biodegradablesynthetic polymer wafers or micro-spheres designed for slow drugrelease.

The invention further encompasses the treatment of metastasized cancerwhich has metastasized to any site in the body. In one embodiment of theinvention, the metastasis is located in the brain and/or the bone. It iswell-recognized that patients afflicted with breast, lung, colon,kidney, prostate, pancreas, and skin cancer frequently die fromneurological complications resulting from metastases to the brain orbone, or both. Most carcinomas express claudins 3 and 4 (e.g. breast,lung, colon, kidney, prostate, pancreas, etc.) whereas the cell types ofthe brain and bone do not. Thus, intracranial or intraostealadministration of CPE may be used to eliminate cancer cells or tumors,especially metastatic tumors originating from these sources whileleaving non-malignant brain and bone cells unharmed. In other words,targeting claudins 3 and 4 with CPE may provide a means of eliminatingmetastatic cancer from the brain and bone without damaging the brainitself. Drug delivery may be accomplished by any of several means whichare well known to those of skill in the art, including but not limitedto stereotactic injection, implantation of drug saturated wafers,micropump, etc.

Those of skill in the art will recognize that the amount of CPE whichmust be administered in order to treat primary epithelial cancer andcancer metastases will vary from case to case depending on severalfactors (e.g. the size, gender, age and general health of the patient,the stage of the disease, etc) and is best determined by a skilledpractitioner such as a physician. The details of the dosage aretypically determined during clinical trials. However, in general, thequantity to be administered will be in the range of from about 0.05mg/kg to about 20 mg/kg, and preferably from about 0.01 mg/kg to about 1mg/kg.

EXAMPLES Background for Examples 1 to 7

Metastasis is the primary cause of fatality in breast cancer patients.Although there are believed to be numerous events contributing to theprocess of metastasis, it is widely accepted that the loss ofcell-to-cell adhesion in neoplastic epithelium is necessary for invasionof surrounding stromal elements and subsequent metastatic events.Cell-to-cell adhesion in epithelial cell sheets is maintained mainlythrough two types of junctions: adherens junctions and tight junctions.

Numerous studies have focused their attention on the transmembraneprotein of the adherens junction, E-cadherin. These studies have shownthat impairing the function of E-cadherin can cause cell dispersion andconfer invasive properties in various cell types. Owing to theseabilities, E-cadherin is believed to function as a tumor suppressor innumerous tissues and has been shown to be a useful prognostic indicatorfor some tumors, illustrating the importance of cell-to-cell adhesionproteins in cancer progression (Soler et al., 1995; Wheelock et al.,2001).

Tight junctions, unlike adherens junctions, are solely involved incell-to-cell adhesion and serve two main functions in epithelial celllayers. First, they prevent the paracellular transport of solutes andions, maintaining concentration gradients driving transcellulartransport. Second, tight junctions prevent the diffusion of membraneproteins and lipids from the apical layer to the basolateral layer of anepithelial cell sheet, helping to maintain cell polarity (Mitic andAnderson, 1998).

Although tight junctions have clearly been shown to play a role incell-to-cell adhesion, their potential role in cancer progression hasbeen scarcely studied. This may be due, in part, to the lack ofknowledge concerning the protein components of these junctions. However,in 1998, Tsukita et al. discovered a new family of tight junctionproteins named Claudins (CLDNs) (Furuse et al., 1998). Currently, thereare 20 known members of the CLDN family (Mitic et al., 2000). CLDNscontain four transmembrane domains and two extracellular loops throughwhich they bind to CLDNs on adjacent cells (Morita et al., 1999). CLDNshave also been shown to bind to the tight junction protein ZO-1 throughtheir carboxyl terminus (Itoh et al., 1999). Interestingly, ZO-1 isbelieved to interact with several proteins involved in cell signalingand transcriptional regulation (Balda and Matter, 2000; Mitic et al.,2000). These studies suggest that CLDNs may play an indirect role incell signaling and transcriptional regulatory events. Most importantly,studies have shown CLDNs to be the main sealing proteins of the tightjunction (Tsukita and Furuse, 1999).

Although changes in the permeability of tight junctions have beenobserved in several types of cancer, little is known about the role ofCLDNs in cancer. In one such investigation, CLDN-1 cDNA levels werefound to be decreased in a number of breast tumors and breast cancercell lines (Kramer et al., 2000). Kramer et al. (2000) went on toexamine the genetic status of CLDN-1 in a large number of sporadic andhereditary breast cancers, but found no genetic alterations that couldexplain this loss or provide evidence supporting the involvement ofaberrant CLDN-1 in breast tumorigenesis.

Here we present, for the first time, data showing that expression of thetight junction protein CLDN-7 is lost in ductal carcinoma in situ(DCIS), lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS), and invasive ductal carcinoma(IDC) of the breast relative to normal mammary epithelium. Loss ofCLDN-7 closely associates with the discohesive architecture typicallyobserved in high-grade lesions, suggesting a potential functional rolefor CLDN-7 in breast cancer progression. While the mechanism of loss ofCLDN-7 in breast cancer cell lines could be ascribed to promoterhypermethylation (Jones and Baylin, 2002), this was not found to be thecase in primary IDCs. Taken together, these studies suggest that theloss of CLDN-7 may aid the dissemination of cancer cells. Further, asecond claudin, claudin-1, has been shown to exhibit similar properties.

Materials and Methods for Examples 1-7

Cell Lines, Organoids and Tumors

Most cell lines were obtained from American Type Culture Collection(Manassas, Va., USA), and cultured according to conditions specified.Finite lifespan HMECs 9F1403, 04372, 16637 were purchased from Clonetics(Rockville, Md., USA). Breast cancer cell lines 21 PT and 21 MT; NewEngland 184, immortalized HMECs 184A 1 (early and late passages), 184B5;HMEC strain 11-24; were provided as gifts. Mammary organoid samples, N1,N34, N65, and N74 were prepared from reduction mammoplasty specimens ofwomen with no abnormalities in the breast as described (Bergstraessarand Weitzman, 1993). Briefly, the specimens were enzymatically digestedinto duct-like structures (organoids), filtered, histologicallyconfirmed to contain greater than 80% epithelial cells, and frozen at−70° C. until use (Bergstraessar and Weitzman, 1993). Highly purified(95-99%) luminal and myoepithelial cells were isolated by differentialcentrifugation and fluorescence-activated cell sorting of enzymaticallydigested normal mammoplasty specimens (Gomm et al., 1995). Paraffinblocks of DCIS, LCIS, and IDCs of the breast were obtained from theSurgical Pathology files of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, observinginstitutional guidelines for acquisition of such specimens.

Generation of CLDN-7 Antibody

A synthetic peptide corresponding to the C-terminus of CLDN-7 proteinconjugated to the carrier protein, keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) wasgenerated by Mimotopes (Raleigh, N.C., USA). Polyclonal rabbitantipeptide antibodies were raised and sera were collected. CLDN-7polyclonal antibody was then affinity purified using the AminolinkImmobilization kit (Pierce, Rockford, Ill., USA) and the peptide againstwhich the antibody was raised. To test the affinity-purified CLDN-7antibody for crossreactivity with other CLDN proteins, human CLDN-3-,-4, and -7 were cloned into pCR 3.1 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif., USA).CLDN-3, -4, and -7 proteins were generated in vitro using cDNA clones inthe TnT Quick Coupled Transcription/Translation System (Promega,Madison, Wis., USA).

Immunofluorescence Microscopy

Cells (1×10⁵) were plated in eight-chamber slides (Nunc, Naperville,Ill., USA) and cultured until confluent. Cells were rinsed inphosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde dilutedin PBS for 15 min. Cells were then permeabilized in 0.5% Triton-Xdiluted in PBS for 5 min. Following permeabilization, cells wereincubated in 20 mg/ml bovine serum albumin for 1 h at room temperature.Rabbit polyclonal CLDN-7 antibody diluted at 1:500 was then added to thecells and incubated at room temperature for 1 h. Subsequently, cellswere incubated with mouse monoclonal 0-1 antibody (Zymed, San Francisco,Calif., USA) for 1 h at room temperature. Cells were then incubated withanti-rabbit IgG conjugated to Alexafluor 568 and anti-mouse IgGconjugated to Alexafluor 488 (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg., USA) for1 h at room temperature. Before visualizing the cells, sections werecoverslipped and sealed.

Confocal Microscopy

Images were obtained using a Nikon PCM 2000.

Immunohistochemistry

Paraffin-embedded sections and breast tumor array sections weredeparaffinized in xylene and rehydrated through graded ethanols. Antigenretrieval was performed by immersing sections in 0.01 m sodium citrate,pH 6.0, and boiling by microwave for 20 min. Sections were then cooledto room temperature and endogenous peroxidase activity was quenched byimmersing in 0.3% hydrogen peroxide for 30 min. Blocking was thenperformed by incubation in diluted normal goat serum (Vectastain kit,Vector, Burlingame, Mich., USA) as per the manufacturer's instructions.Sections were then incubated with rabbit polyclonal CLDN-7 at a 1:500dilution for a period of 16 h. Diluted biotinylated anti-rabbit IgG(Vectastain kit) was added to the sections and incubated for 30 min.Vectastain ABC reagent was then added for 30 min. CLDN-7 protein wasvisualized using 3,30-diaminobenzamidine (DAB) as per the manufacturer'sinstructions (Vector). Sections were then counterstained in hematoxylin(Richard-Allan Scientific, Kalamazoo, Mich., USA) for 10 s. Lastly,sections were dehydrated through graded ethanols, cleared in xylene,mounted, and coverslipped. Images were acquired by light microscopy.

Statistical Analysis of CLDN-7 Expression

IHC staining of CLDN-7 in DCIS, LCIS, and IDC lesions was scoredrelative to adjacent normal mammary epithelium as positive (no change inexpression) or negative (loss of expression). Comparisons of CLDN-7expression across grade were made by tabulating scores for CLDN-7staining according to histological grade (Nuclear or Elston grades 1, 2,or 3). Two-sided Fisher's exact tests were used to assess statisticalsignificance. Although grade is an ordinal variable, the analysistreated it as nominal categorical. As such, P values are slightlyconservative. Inverse correlation implies that as histological gradetends to higher values, CLDN-7 is less likely to be expressed.

Methylation-Specific PCR

Genomic DNA (1 μg) was treated with sodium bisulfite as previouslydescribed (Ferguson et al., 2000) and was analysed by MSP using primersets located within a CpG-rich area in the CLDN-7 promoter (GenBankAccession #11425795) Primers specific for unmethylated DNA were5′-TGGGGAAAGGGTGGTGTTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2) (sense, −831 to −812) and5′-TTACCCAATTTTAACCACCAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 3) (antisense, −670 to −649)yielding a 182 bp product. Primers specific for methylated DNA were5′-GACGTTAGGTTATTTTCGGTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 4) (sense, −550 to −529) and5′-AAACGCGTTTCTAAACGCCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 5) (antisense, −350 to −330)yielding a 220 bp product. The PCR conditions were as follows: one cycleof 95° C. for 5 min ‘hot start,’ then addition of 1 ml Taq polymerase(RedTaq, Sigma, St Louis, Mo., USA); 35 cycles of 95° C. for 30 s, 56°C. for 30 s, and 72° C. for 45 s; and one cycle of 72° C. for 5 min. PCRsamples were resolved by electrophoresis on a 1.5% agarose gel.

5-aza-dC Treatment

Cells were seeded in a 100 mm plate at a density of 1×10⁶ cells. After24 h, cells were treated with 0.75 mm 5-aza-dC (Sigma) (Ferguson et al.,2000; Evron et al., 2001a, b). Total cellular DNA and RNA were isolatedat 0, 3, and 5 days after addition of 5-aza-dC.

RT-PCR.

Total RNA was extracted using TR1 REAGENT BD by the manufacturer'sprotocol (Molecular Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA). cDNA wasgenerated by reverse transcription. Reactions contained 2 mgDNAse-treated RNA, 0.25 mg/μl pdN6 random primers (Life Technologies,Rockville, Md., USA), 1× first-strand buffer (Life Technologies), 1 mmof each deoxynucleotide triphosphate (Life Technologies), 200 unitsSuperscript reverse transcriptase (Life Technologies), and wereincubated for 1 h at 37° C., followed by heat inactivation at 70° C. for15 min. PCR was performed using the primers 5′-CCACTCGAGCCCTAATGGTG-3′(SEQ ID NO: 6) (sense) and 5′-GGTACCCAGCCTTGCTCTCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7)(anti-sense) for CLDN-7 (Accession #AJ011497). Coamplified products of36B4, a ‘housekeeping’ ribosomal protein gene, were used as an internalcontrol, using primers 5′-GATTGGCTACCCAACTGTTGCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 8) and5′-CAGGGGCAGCAGCCACAAAGGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 9) for sense and antisense,respectively. The 25 ml reactions contained 1× buffer (2× reaction mix,Life Technologies), 1 μl cDNA, and 100 nm of each primer. The PCRconditions were: one cycle of 94° C. for 1 min, ‘hot start,’ followed byaddition of one unit of Taq polymerase (RedTaq, Sigma), 35 cycles of 94°C. for 30 s, 59° C. for 30 s, 72° C. for 45 s, and finally one cycle of72° C. for 5 min. PCR samples were resolved by electrophoresis on a 1.5%agarose gel.

Real-Time PCR

Total RNA was extracted and cDNA was generated by reverse transcriptionas described above. CLDN-7 and GAPDH (a ‘housekeeping’ gene) wereamplified individually using a 96-well plate and optical caps (PEApplied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif., USA) with a 25 μl finalreaction volume containing 250 nmol/l sense and antisense primer, 200nmol/l probe, 2.5 mm MgCl₂, one unit Amplitaq Gold, 200 mmol/l each ofdATP, dCTP, dTTP, and dGTP in 1× Taqman Buffer A. Reaction mixtures werepreheated to 95° C. for 10 min, followed by 40 cycles at 95° C. for 15 sand 60° C. for 1 min. The primer and probe sequences are as follows:CLDN-7 (sense) 5′-AAAG TGAAGAAGGCCCGTATAGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 10), CLDN-7(antisense) 5′-GCTACCAAGGCGGCAAGAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 11), CLDN-7 (probe)5′-CC ACGATGAAAATTATGCCTCCACCCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 12), GAPDH (sense)5′-CCCATGTTCGTCATGGGTGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 13), GAPDH (antisense)5′-TGGTCATGAGTCCTTCCACGATA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 14), and GAPDH (probe)5′-CTGCACCACCAACTGCTTAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 15). All PCR reagents, includingprimers and probes, were purchased from PE Applied Biosystems.

Sequencing of Sodium-Bisulfite-Treated DNA

DNA from peripheral white blood cells, IDCs, and breast cancer celllines was treated with sodium bisulfite as previously described(Ferguson et al., 2000). Briefly, the DNA was purified and a CpG-richpromoter region was amplified by PCR using the following primers:5′-GTGATTTTGGTGTTTAGGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 16) (sense primer with start at−675) and 5′-ATCCCAAAATATCCTAAACTA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 17) (antisense primerwith start at −375), which generated a 300 bp PCR product. The productwas purified using a Qiagen PCR purification kit (Qiagen Corp) andsequenced using the antisense primer.

Western Blotting

IDC of the breast and normal mammary organoid tissue was homogenized andtotal protein was extracted using lysis buffer consisting of 15%glycerol, 5% SDS, and 250 mm Tris-HCl, pH 6.7. Equal amounts of proteinfrom cell lysates were resolved using 12% SDS-PAGE (Invitrogen,Carlsbad, Calif., USA). Protein was then transferred to ECLnitrocellulose membranes (Amersham, Arlington Heights, Ill., USA).Following Western transfer, membranes were probed with CLDN-3, 4(Zymed), CLDN-7, or b-actin (Amersham) antibody diluted 1:1000 (CLDN-3,4, and 7) or 1:5000 (bactin). Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated antibodyagainst rabbit or mouse IgG (Amersham) was used at 1:1000 and bindingwas revealed using enhanced chemiluminescence (Amersham).

Abbreviations

CLDN, Claudin; IDC, invasive ductal carcinoma; RT-PCR, reversetranscription-polymerization chain reaction; IHC, immunohistochemicalanalysis; DCIS, ductal carcinoma in situ; LCIS, lobular carcinoma insitu; HGF/scatter factor, hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor; KLH,keyhole limpet hemocyanin; MSP, methylation-specific PCR; DAB, 33′-diaminobenzamidine; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase;5-aza-dC, 5′-aza-2′-deoxycytidine; HMEC, human mammary epithelial cells.

Example 1 Expression of CLDN-7 mRNA in IDC and Normal Mammary Epithelium

A SAGE and cDNA microarray analysis performed previously in ourlaboratory had suggested that CLDN-7 was overexpressed in breast cancercell lines and IDCs of the breast relative to cultured finite lifespanhuman mammary epithelial cells (HMEC) (Nacht et al., 1999). We initiatedvalidation studies by directly comparing the expression of a number ofdifferentially expressed mRNAs in IDCs using semiquantitative RT-PCRanalysis. Total RNA was extracted and cDNA was generated by reversetranscription. CLDN-7 and 36B4, a ‘housekeeping’ ribosomal protein gene,were amplified individually by PCR. PCR products were resolved byelectrophoresis on a 1.5% agarose gel. Samples were: 16637- and04372-cultured HMECs from Clonetics; Lum 1-4 and Myo 1-3-immunobeadpurified luminal and myoepithelial cells from normal mammoplastyspecimens; and 10 invasive ductal carcinomas. Confirming data frommicroarray analysis (Nacht et al., 1999), CLDN-7 expression wasundetectable by RT-PCR in finite lifespan HMECs expanded in tissueculture, 16637 and 04372, and in HMEC 184, 184A1 (early and latepassage) and 184B1 (data not shown). Contrary to our expectation,however, easily detectable to high levels of CLDN-7 mRNA expression wereseen in seven of seven uncultured luminal and myoepithelial cellpopulations derived from normal mammoplasty specimens. Also, nine of tenIDCs showed low or undetectable levels of CLDN-7 mRNA. Theseobservations were in direct contrast to our published data (Nacht etal., 1999), where we had reported that at least 50% of primary tumorsexpress levels of CLDN-7 mRNA that were significantly higher thancultured finite lifespan HMEC.

One possible explanation for these contradictory findings could be thechoice of HMEC used to compare expression profiles between normal andtumor samples. In our study, as in many other comparative geneexpression profiling studies (Fujii et al., 2002; Iacobuzio-Donahue etal., 2002), we had used mortal HMEC expanded in tissue culture as oursource of normal breast epithelium. We considered the possibility thatplacing the cells in tissue culture, albeit short term, may have alteredtheir expression profile and resulted in a loss of CLDN-7 expression. Totest this possibility, we determined the expression of CLDN-7 in twoimmortalized and four finite lifespan HMEC cultured in vitro, sixuncultured HMEC derived from three normal mammoplasty specimens, and 10breast cancer cell lines by realtime PCR analysis (FIG. 1). A strikingdifference in CLDN-7 mRNA expression was observed between the six tissuecultured cell lines (n=2) and strains (n=4) and the six uncultured HMEC.HMEC cultured in vitro showed very low to undetectable levels of CLDN-7mRNA expression, while an average of nearly 1000-fold higher levels wereobserved in uncultured HMEC, of both luminal and myoepithelialsubfractions. Thus, the erroneous conclusion of CLDN-7 overexpression inprimary tumors likely arose as a consequence of using cultured HMEC(which expressed extremely low levels of CLDN-7 mRNA) as a basis forcomparison. Relative to CLDN-7 mRNA levels in uncultured HMEC, however,CLDN-7 expression in all 10 breast cancer cell lines was lower by10-1000-fold. Thus, although immaterial for many other genes (Fergusonet al., 2000; Evron et al., 2001a, b; Loeb et al., 2001), placing HMECin tissue culture had the profound effect of silencing CLDN-7expression. When used as controls for comparative gene expressionstudies, such tissue-culture-based alterations could lead to inaccurateinterpretation of data.

This example demonstrates that CLDN-7 is consistently expressed innormal mammary epithelium which CLDN-7 expression is lost inapproximately 70% of primary breast carcinomas.

Example 2 Generation and Characterization of CLDN-7 Polyclonal Antibody

To study expression of CLDN-7 protein in breast tissues, we generated arabbit polyclonal antibody against the synthetic polypeptideCKAGYRAPRSYPKSNSSKEYV (SEQ ID NO: 1) corresponding to the C-terminus ofCLDN-7. This region of the protein shares little sequence similaritywith other members of the CLDN family. Human CLDN-3, -4, and -7 werecloned into pCR 3.1 (Invitrogen) and proteins were generated in vitrousing cDNA clones in the TnT Quick Coupled Transcription/TranslationSystem as determined by Western analysis using antibodies specific forCLDN-3 and -4 (Zymed). Next, we used the C-terminal CLDN-7 peptide inenzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to test for the presence ofCLDN-7 antibody in rabbit sera. The results are shown in FIG. 2 whereCLDN-7 antibody is detected in rabbit sera from bleeds 1-3 as indicatedby a linearly increased level of absorbance over several folds dilutionversus no absorbance detected in rabbit sera from prebleed (blood drawnprior to antigen delivery). The CLDN-7 antibody was affinity purifiedusing the peptide against which it was raised. Western analysis wasperformed on equal amounts of protein from TnT reactions using CLDN-7antibody producing a single band at the predicted size of approximately23 kDa, while not detecting CLDN-3 or -4. Conversely, antibodies toCLDN-3 and -4 did not detect CLDN-7 protein, but detected their cognateprotein. Further, preincubation of CLDN-7 antibody with the C-terminalpeptide was able to compete out binding to CLDN-7 protein in Westernanalysis (data not shown).

To perform immunofluorescence studies using the affinity purifiedantibody, MCF-7 cells were grown to confluence on a chambered slide, andprobed with CLDN-7 and ZO-1 antibodies. CLDN-7 and ZO-1 proteins werevisualized both individually and as a composite by confocal microscopyat a magnification of ×600. The results showed colocalization of CLDN-7with the tight junction protein ZO-1 at the cell membrane. Unique redspots were observed in the cytoplasm. Whether they represent nonspecificstaining or CLDN-7 localized in cell organelles is not yet known. Thesespots were not localized to mitochondria, however, since they did notcolocalize with organelles stained by using the MitoTracker Red dye(Molecular Probes, Eugene Oreg.).

This example demonstrates that affinity purified CLDN-7 antibodyrecognizes CLDN-7 at the cell membrane and more specifically at thetight junction.

Example 3 Expression of CLDN-7 Protein in IDC and Normal MammaryEpithelium

To determine whether protein expression reflected that of CLDN-7 mRNAexpression as obtained by RT-PCR, we performed Western analysis on apanel of 10 breast cancer cell lines, eight IDCs, and four samples ofmammary organoids isolated from reduction mammoplasty specimens ofnormal women. Western analysis was performed on equal amounts of proteinfrom total cell lysates using CLDN-7 and b-actin antibodies. Consistentwith real-time quantitative RT-PCR results (FIG. 1), Western analysis ofa panel of 10 breast cancer cell lines showed a close correlationbetween CLDN-7 protein and CLDN-7 mRNA expression. Cell lines thatshowed low or no detectable mRNA (MDA-MB-435, MDA-MB-231, and HS578T)had no detectable protein, while the remaining seven cell lines showeddetectable CLDN-7 expression. Also consistent with RT-PCR, CLDN-7expression in six of eight IDCs was significantly lower than in foursamples of epithelial organoids obtained by enzymatic digestion ofnormal mammoplasty specimens. Lastly, Claudin-1 expression was found tobe down-regulated in 6 out of 10 breast cancer cell lines as compared toimmortalized and finite life-span normal human mammary epithelial cells.This is consistent with reports of frequent done-regulation of Claudin-1in primary breast carcinoma.

Owing to the heterogeneity of cell types in breast tissue and the factthat only the epithelial cell component expresses CLDNs, it wasnecessary to determine if the loss of CLDN-7 expression observed inbreast cancer tissues relative to normal mammary epithelium was simplybecause of a difference in epithelial cell content. Therefore, weperformed immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis on several of the same IDCcases that had been tested by Western analysis. IHC analysis wasperformed on paraffin-embedded sections of human breast cancer tissues079, 126, and 973 using CLDN-7 antibody. CLDN-7 protein in human breastcancer tissues (T) and adjacent normal mammary epithelium (N) werevisualized using DAB. Membrane staining was observed in normal breastepithelium. Sections were counterstained with hematoxylin and visualizedby light microscopy (×200) In each case, the CLDN-7 staining pattern wascompared to that in adjacent normal epithelium as an internal positivecontrol. Surrounding fibroblasts and adipocytes served as negativecontrols since these cells do not express CLDN proteins. The analysiswas performed on equal amounts of protein from cell lysates using CLDN-7and b-actin antibodies.

As expected for a tight junction protein, CLDN-7 staining was restrictedto epithelial cells with the strongest expression concentrated at thecell membrane, although diffuse staining in the cytoplasm was alsoobserved. Consistent with the Western analysis results, the level ofCLDN-7 staining was greatly reduced in all three IDCs tested as comparedto adjacent normal epithelium.

This example demonstrates that CLDN-7 protein expression is lost inprimary breast carcinoma cells relative to normal mammary epithelium.

Example 4 Expression of CLDN-7 in Ductal Carcinoma In Situ and IDC

To assess the potential value of loss of CLDN-7 as a prognosticindicator for breast cancer, we determined its expression pattern in aseries of in situ and invasive breast carcinomas by IHC analysis. AsDCIS is believed to be a direct precursor to IDC, we first examined theCLDN-7 staining pattern in a range of DCIS cases, from nuclear grade 1(low grade) through 3 (high grade). In each case, the staining patternof CLDN-7 in DCIS was compared to that in adjacent normal epithelium,where staining was predominantly membranous. IHC analysis showed nochanges in CLDN-7 expression in either grade 1 (0/10) or grade 2 (0/14)cases, while 71% of grade 3 cases (10/14) showed a loss of itsexpression (Table 1). Thus, we observed that CLDN-7 expression in DCISwas inversely correlated with nuclear grade (P<0.001).

We next examined the CLDN-7 staining pattern in IDCs ranging from Elstongrade 1 (low grade) through 3 (high grade), which was compared in eachcase to that seen in the normal epithelium present on the same section.IHC analysis was performed on paraffin-embedded sections of human breasttissue using CLDN-7 antibody. CLDN-7 protein was visualized using DAB.Sections were counterstained in hematoxylin and visualized by lightmicroscopy (×200). Membrane staining of normal breast epithelium wasnoted. Few grade 1 (1/6) or grade 2 (3/12) IDC cases showed a loss ofCLDN-7 expression, while 77% of grade 3 cases (10/13) showed asignificant loss of staining (Table 1). Thus, CLDN-7 expression in IDCwas found to be inversely correlated with histological grade (P=0.014).

CLDN-7 immunoreactivity in IDC was further studied by tissue arrayanalysis. IHC analysis was performed on tissue arrays containing 612paraffin-embedded sections of human breast tissue using CLDN-7 antibody.CLDN-7 protein was visualized using DAB. Sections were counterstained inhematoxylin and visualized by light microscopy (×200) Of the 612 totalcases of IDC on the tissue array, 100 Elston grade 1, 140 Elston grade2, and 115 Elston grade 3 cases were evaluable and showed an inversecorrelation between CLDN-7 expression and histological grade (P=0.03).This finding was consistent with the results of the case-by-caseanalysis (summarized in Table 1). TABLE 1 IHC analysis of CLDN-7expression^(a) Cases with loss of Histological expression/totalHistology grade cases P^(b) DCIS Nuclear grade  0/10 1  0/14 2 10/14<0.001 3 DC Elston Grade 1 1/6 2  3/12 3 10/13 0.014 LCIS NA 13/17^(a)Data are compiled from IHC analysis of whole paraffin-embeddedsections^(b)Comparisons of CLDN-7 expression across grade were made bytabulating scores for CLDN-7 staining according to histological grade(nuclear or Elston grades 1, 2, or 3) Two-sided Fisher's exact testswere used to assess statistical significance

No correlation between CLDN-7 expression and estrogen/progesteronereceptor status, age, tumor size, or lymph node status was found bytissue array analysis. This last result was contrary to our case-by-caseanalysis, where seven of ten IDCs with a positive lymph node statusshowed a loss of CLDN-7 expression. While the utility of tissue arrayscannot be underestimated since it allows for very high samplethroughput, the lack of an internal control (normal epithelium) for eachtumor sample, combined with the small sampling represented in eachtissue punch could lead to a greater error in determining geneexpression. In our study, these factors may be responsible for the lackof correlation with lymph node status in tissue arrays when compared tocase-by-case analysis. This source of error is being minimized in newergenerations of tissue arrays, which contain several punches from thesame tumor tissue, and also from their normal margins. Thus, at thepresent time, performing a case-by-case analysis alongside tissue arrayanalysis is preferred.

This example demonstrates that expression of CLDN-7 is inverselycorrelated with tumor grade, being lost in the majority of high gradeDCIS and high grade IDC lesions, suggesting that CLDN-7 will be usefulas a prognostic marker for breast cancer.

Example 5 Expression of CLDN-7 in LCIs

If CLDNs play a functional role in cell-to-cell adhesion, breast lesionsthat are typified by scattered cells should express very low levels ofCLDN-7. In agreement with this notion, IHC analysis of LCIS, a lesionwhose defining and characteristic feature is discohesion, was carriedout. IHC analysis was performed on paraffin-embedded sections of humanbreast tissue using CLDN-7 antibody. CLDN-7 protein was visualized usingDAB. Sections were counterstained in hematoxylin and visualized by lightmicroscopy (×200). The results showed a loss of CLDN-7 expression in 76%(13/17) of cases. This contrasted significantly (P=0.001) with DCIS,where its loss is seen in only 26% (10/38) of cases irrespective ofgrade (Table 1).

This example demonstrates that loss of CLDN-7 expression correlates withcellular discohesiveness.

Example 6 Effect of HGF/Scatter Factor on CLDN-7 Expression

A direct demonstration of the inverse correlation between CLDN-7expression and cell-to-cell adhesion was sought by the treatment ofbreast cancer cell lines with hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor(HGF/scatter factor). HGF is well known for its ability to decreasecell-to-cell adhesion and stimulate cell migration (Jiang et al., 1999).Breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and T47D, which express high levels ofCLDN-7 localized at the tight junction were treated with HGF/scatterfactor for a period of 24 h. Western analysis was performed on equalamounts of total cell lysate using CLDN-7 and b-actin antibodies. Theresults showed a dramatic downregulation of CLDN-7 was observed inMCF-7, and to a lesser extent in T47D cells.

These data provide further direct evidence that loss of CLDN-7 occursconcurrently with loss of cell-to-cell adhesion.

Example 7 Mechanism of Loss of CLDN-7 Expression in Breast Cancer

To investigate the mechanism responsible for the loss of CLDN-7expression, we first wanted to rule out the presence of mutations in theCLDN-7 mRNA (Accession #AJ011497) sequence. Nucleotide sequencing of thefull-length cDNA revealed no mutations in the CLDN-7 coding sequences inall 11 primary IDCs tested (data not shown). Among the 11 tumors, sixexpressed very low or no CLDN-7 mRNA as determined by semiquantitativeRT-PCR analysis.

The presence of CG-dinucleotide-rich sequences in the promoter region ofgenes is quite often a signature denoting that hypermethylation may be apotential mechanism for gene silencing (Ferguson et al., 2000; Evron etal., 2001a, b; Loeb et al., 2001; Jones and Baylin, 2002). The CLDN-7promoter contains a CpG-rich region extending from −20 to −900 bpupstream of the translational start site (Accession #11425795).Therefore, we investigated the promoter region of the CLDN-7 gene.Methylation-specific PCR (MSP) analysis was performed on DNA from sixbreast cancer cell lines. Methylated (M) and unmethylated (UM) genesequences were amplified individually by MSP usingsodium-bisulfite-treated DNA from breast cancer cell lines. WBC(peripheral blood cells) served as a negative control. MSP products wereresolved by electrophoresis on a 1.5% agarose gel. The three breastcancer cell lines that show no detectable CLDN-7 expression (HS578T,MDAMB-231, and MDA-MB-435) contained hypermethylated promoter sequences,while the three that express CLDN-7 (T47D, MCF-7, and MDA-MB-468) wereunmethylated in the same region.

This correlation between the loss of CLDN-7 expression and promoterhypermethylation was further confirmed by sequencing a 300 bp region(containing a dense region of 25 CpG dinucleotides, and included theCG-rich region analysed by MSP) of the CLDN-7 promoter, PCR-amplifiedfrom sodium-bisulfite-treated DNA. All 25 CpGs were methylated inHS578T, MDA-MB-231, and MDA-MB-435 cells, while MCF-7 cells contained nomethylated CpGs (data not shown).

Lastly, treatment of HS578T and MDA-MB-435 cells with the demethylatingagent, 5-aza-dC, resulted in the re-expression of CLDN-7. RT-PCR wasperformed for CLDN-7 and -36B4, a ‘housekeeping’ ribosomal protein gene.PCR products were resolved by electrophoresis on a 1.5% agarose gel. Theresults clearly showed that hypermethylation is a major mechanismresponsible for silencing expression of CLDN-7 in breast cancer celllines, and provides another line of evidence supporting the premise thathypermethylation is a major mechanism responsible for silencingexpression of CLDN-7 in breast cancer cell lines.

Next, to determine if hypermethylation-mediated silencing of CLDN-7expression is functional in primary breast cancer as well, we performedMSP analysis on DNA from IDCs. As expected, the sample of normal mammaryorganoid, N65, and two IDC samples that express CLDN-7 were unmethylatedin this region. However, contrary to our findings in breast cancer celllines, MSP analysis of the CLDN-7 promoter in the five IDCs that havelost CLDN-7 expression also showed completely unmethylated promotersequences. Since MSP analyses only a few CpGs in the promoter, wesequenced the 300 bp segment of the promoter described above. Sequencingof sodium-bisulfite-treated DNA from IDCs 079 and 973 showed nomethylated CpGs (data not shown).

Thus, the evidence provided by MSP, nucleotide sequencing analysis, andre-expression of genes following 5-aza-dC treatment, strongly supportthe notion that promoter hypermethylation of CLDN-7 is the underlyingmechanism for loss of its expression in breast cancer cell lines.

REFERENCES FOR EXAMPLES 1-7

-   Balda M S and Matter K. (2000). EMBO J., 19, 2024-2033.-   Bergstraessar L M and Weitzman S A. (1993). Cancer Res., 53,    2644-2654.-   Evron E, Dooley W C, Umbricht C B, Rosenthal D, Sacchi N, Gabrielson    E, Soito A B, Hung D T, Ljung B, Davidson N E and Sukumar S.    (2001a). Lancet, 357, 1335-1336.-   Evron E, Umbricht C B, Korz D, Raman V, Loeb D M, Niranjan B,    Buluwela L, Weitzman S A, Marks J and Sukumar S. (2001b). Cancer    Res., 61, 2782-2787.-   Ferguson A T, Evron E, Umbricht C B, Pandita T K, Chan T A,    Hermeking H, Marks J R,-   Lambers A R, Futreal P A, Stampfer M R and Sukumar S. (2000). Proc.    Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 97, 6049-6054.-   Fujii T, Dracheva T, Player A, Chacko S, Clifford R, Strausberg R L,    Buetow K, Azumi N, Travis W D and Jen J. (2002). Cancer Res., 62,    3340-3346.-   Furuse M, Fujita K, Hiiragi T, Fujimoto K and Tsukita S. (1998). J.    Cell Biol., 141, 1539-1550.-   Furuse M, Hata M, Furuse K, Yoshida Y, Haratake A, Sugitani Y, Noda    T, Kubo A and Tsukita S. (2002). J. Cell Biol., 156, 1099-1111.-   Gomm J J, Browne P J, Coope R C, Liu Q Y, Buluwela L and Coombes    R C. (1995). Anal. Biochem., 226, 91-99.-   Iacobuzio-Donahue C A, Maitra A, Shen-Ong G L, van Heek T, Ashfaq R,    Meyer R, Walter K, Berg K, Hollingsworth M A, Cameron J L, Yeo C J,    Kern S E, Goggins M and Hruban R H. (2002). Am. J. Pathol., 160,    1239-1249.-   Itoh M, Furuse M, Morita K, Kubota K, Saitou M and Tsukita S.    (1999). J. Cell Biol., 147, 1351-1363.-   Jiang W, Hiscox S, Matsumoto K and Nakamura T. (1999). Crit. Rev.    Oncology Hematology, 29, 209-248.-   Jones P A and Baylin S B. (2002). Nat Rev Genet., 3, 415-428.-   Kramer F, White K, Kubbies M, Swisshelm K and Weber B H F. (2000).    Hum. Genet., 107, 249-256.-   Loeb D M, Evron E, Patel C B, Sharma P M, Niranjan B, Buluwela L,    Weitzman S A, Korz D and Sukumar S. (2001). Cancer Res., 61,    921-925.-   Mitic L L and Anderson J M. (1998). Annu. Rev. Physiol., 60,    121-142.-   Mitic L L, Van Itallie C M and Anderson J M. (2000). Am. J. Physiol.    Gastrointest. Liver Physiol., 279, G250-G254.-   Morita K, Furuse M, Fujimoto K and Tsukita S. (1999). Proc. Natl.    Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 511-516.-   Nacht M, Ferguson A T, Zhang W, Petroziello J M, Cook B P, Gao Y H,    Maguire S, Riley D, Coppola G, Landes G M, Madden S L and Sukumar S.    (1999). Cancer Res., 59, 5464-5470.-   Simon D B, Lu Y, Choate K A, Velazques H, Al-Sabban E, Praga M,    Casari G, Bettinelli A, Colussi G, Rodriguez-Soriano J et al.    (1999). Science, 285, 103-106.-   Sirotkin H, Morrow B, Saint-Jore B, Puech A, Das Gupta R, Patanjali    S R, Skoultchi A, Weissman S M and Kucherlapati R. (1997). Genomics,    42, 245-251.-   Soler A P, Knudsen K A, Jaurand M-C, Johnson K R, Wheelock M J,    Klein-Szanto A J P and Salazar H. (1995). Hum. Pathol., 26,    1363-1369.-   Tsukita S and Furuse M. (1999). Trends Cell Biol., 9, 268-273.-   Wheelock M J, Soler A P and Knudsen K A. (2001). J. Mammary Gland    Biol. Neoplasia, 6, 275-285.-   Wilcox E R, Burton Q L, Naz S, Riazuddin S, Smith T N, Ploplis B,    Belyantseva I, Ben-Yosef T, Liburd N A, Morell R J, Kachar B, Wu D    K, Grif.th A J, Riazuddin S and Friedman T B. (2001). Cell, 104,    165-172.

Background for Examples 8 to 15

Breast cancer therapies have shown limited efficacy in patients withadvanced disease. Although many advances in diagnostic, prognostic, andtherapeutic methods have been made over the last several years, breastcancer remains the second leading cause of cancer death in women and theleading cause of death in women between the ages of 40 and 55. Thuspreventative and new therapeutic techniques are needed.

Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) is a common cause of foodpoisoning. Following ingestion of CPE, the toxin binds to its receptorson intestinal epithelial cells resulting in cell lysis. The receptorsfor CPE were identified in 1999 as the tight junction proteins Claudin 3and 4. Claudin 3 functions as the low affinity receptor and Claudin 4 asthe high affinity receptor. We propose that CPE targeting throughclaudins 3 and 4 may provide an effective preventative measure as wellas therapy for breast cancer. Further, patients afflicted with breast aswell as lung, colon, kidney, and skin cancer frequently die fromneurological complications resulting from metastases to the brain orbone. Several other varieties of carcinoma have been known tometastasize to the brain and bone as well including those of prostateand pancreas. Targeting claudins 3 and 4 with CPE may provide a means ofeliminating these metastases from the brain and bone without damaginghealthy tissues as normal brain and tissue does not express theseproteins.

Materials and Methods for Examples 8-15

Reagents

Purified Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin was obtained as a gift.Antibodies against Claudin 3 and 4 were obtained from ZymedLaboratories.

Cell Lines

HBL-100 cells were maintained in growth medium consisting of McCoy's 5Amedium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). SKBr3 cells weremaintained in growth medium consisting of McCoy's 5A medium supplementedwith 15% fetal bovine serum (FBS). HS578T, MCF-7, MDA-MB 435, and NIH3T3 cells were maintained in growth medium consisting of Dulbeccosmodified eagles medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum(FBS). T47D and MDA-MB 231 cells were maintained in growth mediumconsisting of RPMI medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum(FBS). 21MT and 21PT cells were maintained in growth medium consistingof alpha minimal essential medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovineserum (FBS), 10 mM HEPES, 1× non-essential amino acids, 1 mM sodiumpyruvate, 2 mM glutamine, 1 μg/ml insulin, 25 ng/ml EGF, and 1 μg/mlhydrocortisol. MW cells were maintained in growth medium consisting of45% DM-EM and 45% Ham's F 12 supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum(FBS). MCF-10A cells were maintained in growth medium consisting of47.5% DMEM and 47.5% Ham's F12 supplemented with 5% horse serum, 100ng/ml cholera toxin, 10 μg/ml insulin, 0.5 μg/ml hydrocortisol, and 20ng/ml EGF. NMU 36 and NMU 58 cells were maintained in growth mediumconsisting of 45% DMEM and 45% Ham's F 12 supplemented with 10% fetalbovine serum (FBS).

CPE Cytotoxicity

Cells were plated at 3×10⁵ cells/well in 6-well plates and grown to 80%confluence. Media was then removed and replaced with fresh media with orwithout CPE at concentration ranging from 0.05 to 2 μg/ml. Cells wereincubated at 37° C. for 60 min. Floating and attached cells werecollected and counted using a hemocytometer. Cell viability wasdetermined by trypan blue (0.4%) dye exclusion.

Detection of Claudin-3 and 4 in Blood and Ductal Lavage Fluid

Blood and ductal lavage fluid is collected from breast cancer patients.Red blood cells are then removed from whole blood by lysis in H₂O.Protein is then extracted from the remaining mixture of leukocytes indcancer cells or ductal lavage fluid. Equal amounts of protein are thenabsorbed to a 96-well plate over night. Plates are then dried andincubated at room temperature (RT) in blocking buffer (50 g Milk/L PBS)for 2 hrs. Claudin-3 or 4 antibody (Zymed) is added to the plate andincubated for 2 hours at RT. Claudin-3 or 4 is detected following theaddition of HRP substrate using a plate reader at 490 nm. HRP-labeledsecondary antibody is then added and incubated for 1 hour. The presenceof Claudin-3 or 4 is detected following the addition of HRP substrateusing a plate reader at 490 nm.

Mouse Toxicity Studies

6-8 week old athymic nude and Balb/C mice were be anesthetized and a 2mm burr hole centered 2 mm posterior to the coronal suture and 2 mmlateral to the sagittal suture was made. Mice were transferred to astereotactic frame and administered either PBS or CPE (0.05-10 ug) as asingle injection into the cerebral cortex at a depth of 3 mm three timesper week for two weeks. One group of six mice were observed for anysymptoms of toxicity or neurological complications includingsluggishness, lack of grooming, hemiparesis, and weight loss on a dailybasis for two months. A second group of six mice were sacrificed at twoweeks, brains were removed and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin,and sections of brain tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin.

ELISA

96-well plates were coated over night with synthetic polypeptide at aconcentration of 600 ng/50 ul. Plates were dried and incubated at roomtemperature (RT) in blocking buffer (50 g Milk/L PBS) for 2 hrs. Rabbitantisera was diluted in PBS, added to plate, and incubated for 2 hoursat room temperature. The presence of Claudin-7 pAb was visualized usinganti-rabbit secondary antibody conjugated to horse radish peroxidase(HRP) at 490 nm.

Generation of Claudin-7 Polyclonal Antibody

Anti-human Claudin-7 pAb was raised in rabbits against the syntheticpolypeptide (CKAGYRAPRSYPKSNSSKEYV) (SEQ ID NO. 1) (Mimotopes), whichcorresponds to the C-terminus of human Claudin-7. The presence ofClaudin-7-polyclonal antibody in successive bleeds was determined byELISA. 96-well plates were coated over night with synthetic polypeptideat a concentration of 600 ng/50 μl. Plates were dried and incubated atroom temperature (RT) in blocking buffer (50 g Milk/L PBS) for 2 hrs.Rabbit antisera was diluted in PBS, added to plate, and incubated for 2hours at RT. The presence of Claudin-7 pAb was visualized usinganti-rabbit secondary antibody conjugated to horse radish peroxidase(HRP) at 490 nm.

Immunohistochemistry

Sections of human breast cancer tissue embedded in paraffin wereobtained. Sections were deparaffinized in xylene and rehydrated throughgraded EtOH. Antigen retrieval was performed by microwaving sections in0.01M Citrate buffer, pH 6.0 for 20 min. Sections were cooled for 1 hourand then immersed in 0.3% H₂O₂ in MeOH to quench endogenous peroxidaseactivity for 30 min. Blocking was performed in diluted normal blockingserum (Vectastain kit, Vector Labs). Sections were probed usingClaudin-3 and 4 antibody, followed by biotinylated secondary antibody(Vectastain kit, Vector Labs), incubation with ABC reagent (Vectastainkit, Vector Labs), and DAB (Vector kit, Vector Labs). Finally, sectionswere counterstained in Hematoxylin, dehydrated, cleared in xylene, andvisualized by light microscopy.

RT-PCR

Total RNA was extracted using Trizol per instructions (Sigma Co, St.Louis, Mo.). cDNA was generated by reverse transcription. Reactionscontained 2 μg DNAse-treated RNA, 0.25 μg/μl pdN6 random primers(Pharmacia), 1× first-strand buffer (Life Technologies), 1 mM of eachdeoxynucleotide triphosphate (Pharmacia), 200 units Superscript reversetranscriptase (Life Technologies), and were incubated for 1 hr at 37°C., followed by heat inactivation at 70° C. for 15 min. PCR wasperformed using the primers: 5′-CCACTCGAGCCCTAATGGTG-3′ (sense) (SEQ IDNO: 18) and 5′ GGTACCCAGCCTTGCTCTCA-3′ (anti-sense) (SEQ ID NO: 19) forClaudin-7. Coamplified products of 36B4, a “housekeeping” ribosomalprotein gene, were used as an internal control, using primers5′-GATTGGCTACCCAACTGTTGCA-3′ (sense) (SEQ ID NO:20) and 5′AGGGGCAGCAGCCACAAAGGC-3′ (anti-sense) (SEQ ID NO: 21). The 25 μlreactions contained 1× buffer (2× reaction mix, BRL), 1 μl cDNA, and 100nm of each primer. The PCR conditions were: 1 cycle of 94° C. for 1 min,“hot start,” followed by addition of 1 unit of Taq polymerase (RedTaq,Sigma), 35 cycles of 94° C. for 30 sec, 59° C. for 30 sec, 72° C. for 45sec, and finally 1 cycle of 72° C. for 5 min. PCR samples were resolvedby electrophoresis on a 1.5% agarose gel.

Western Blotting

Primary breast cancer tissue, normal, and benign (B) mammary organoidtissue was homogenized. Total protein was extracted from tissue andcells using lysis buffer consisting of 15% glycerol, 5% SDS, and 250 mMTris-HCl, pH 6.7. Equal amounts of protein from cell lysates wereresolved using 12% SDS-PAGE (Invitrogen). Protein was then transferredto ECL nitrocellulose membranes (Amersham). Following Western transfer,membranes were probed with Claudin-3 and 4 (Zymed) and Actin (Amersham)antibodies, and developed using ECL (Amersham).

Example 8 Expression of Claudins 3 and 4 Protein in Primary BreastCarcinomas, Breast Cancer Cell Lines, and Normal Mammary Epithelium

The expression of Claudin 3 and 4 proteins in primary breast carcinomas,breast cancer cell lines, and normal mammary organoids was determined byWestern blot analysis. We found Claudin 3 and 4 proteins to be expressedin the majority of breast cancer cell lines (7/10) and, moreimportantly, in all primary breast tumors tested (15/15). Further,Claudin 3 and 4 proteins were over-expressed by more than 2-fold in12/15 (p=0.008) and 5/15 (p=0.046) primary breast tumors, respectively,relative to human mammary epithelial cells and normal epithelialorganoids obtained from reduction mammmoplasty specimens as determinedby densitometric scanning.

These results showed that primary breast carcinomas consistently expressthe receptors for CPE, Claudins 3 and 4, and have increased expressionrelative to normal mammary epithelial cells.

Although Western analysis showed expression of Claudins 3 and 4 in allprimary breast carcinomas tested it was important to determine thecellular localization of Claudins 3 and 4 as CPE-mediated cytolysisrequires expression of its receptors at the cell membrane.Immunohistochemical analysis of Claudin 3 and 4 expression was performedon 10 primary breast carcinoma cases, 4 of which were included in ourWestern blot analysis. It was found that Claudin 3 and 4 proteins wereboth expressed at the cell membrane although some amount of cytoplasmicstaining was also observed. Consistent with Western blot analysis,expression of Claudin 3 and 4 proteins in tumor epithelium was increasedin 5/10 and 3/10 cases, respectively, relative to that seen in adjacentnormal mammary epithelium.

Example 9 CPE Specifically and Efficiently Lyses Claudin 3 and 4Expressing Breast Cancer Cells

As CPE is known to efficiently destroy cells bearing Claudin 3 and/or 4the ability of CPE to destroy several breast cancer cell lines wastested. Cells were plated at 3×10⁵ cells/well in 6-well plates and grownto 80% confluence. Media was then removed and replaced with fresh mediawith or without recombinant CPE at concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 2μg/ml. Cells were incubated at 37° C. for 60 min. Floating and attachedcells were collected and counted using a hemocytometer. Cell viabilitywas determined by trypan blue (0.4%) dye exclusion. Data fromrepresentative experiments are expressed as % cytotoxicity as comparedto media control ±S.D. Treatment of breast cancer cell lines withvarious concentrations of CPE resulted in rapid and dose-dependentcytolysis specific for cells expressing Claudins 3 and 4 (FIG. 3).Treatment with CPE at a concentration of 1 ug/ml resulted in maximumcytolysis killing virtually 100% of the cells.

Example 10 Treatment of T47D Breast Cancer Cell Xenografts with CPE

T47D cells (1×10⁷) were resuspended in matrigel and subcutaneouslyinjected bilaterally in the flank of 6-8 week old SCID mice. Tumors weregrown to approximately 100 mm³ prior to CPE treatment. Tumors treatedwith recombinant CPE showed a significant dose-dependent reduction intumor volume (FIG. 4). Further, Hematoxylin and Eosin staining ofCPE-treated tumors revealed high levels of tumor necrosis accounting forapproximately 30-80% of the total tumor area.

This example demonstrates that CPE effectively destroys Claudin 3 and 4positive breast cancer cell lines established as xenografts in vivo.

Example 11 Expression of Claudin 3 and 4 in Rat NMU-Induced BreastCancer Cell Lines

We next wanted to determine the effectiveness of recombinant CPE againstspontaneously occurring breast tumors. To accomplish this we choose touse the Sprague-Dawley rat NMU-induced model of breast cancer. Todetermine if the cells from these tumors would be susceptible to CPE wefirst determined the expression of Claudin 3 and 4 proteins in twobreast cancer cell lines established from these tumors by Westernanalysis. We found that both NMU 36 and NMU 58 breast cancer cell linesexpressed Claudins 3 and 4, although NMU 36 expressed lower levels.

Example 12 CPE Specifically and Efficiently Lyses Claudin 3 and 4Expressing Rat Breast Cancer Cells

To determine whether rat NMU-induced breast cancer cell lines weresensitive to the cytolytic effects of recombinant CPE we treated NMU 36and NMU 58 with various concentrations of CPE for a period of 60 min(FIG. 5). Consistent with our results in human breast cancer cell lines,CPE treatment resulted in rapid and dose-dependent cytolysis specificfor cells expressing claudins 3 and 4 as the claudin 3 and 4 negativeNIH3T3 cells were unaffected. Further, NMU-36 cells were not assensitive to CPE-mediated cytolysis as NMU 58, consistent with theirlower level of claudin 3 and 4 expression. Despite their reducedsensitivity, virtually 100% cytolysis of NMU 36 cells was achieved athigher CPE concentrations.

Example 13 CPE Treatment of Sprague-Dawley NMU-Induced Breast Tumor byIntraductal Injection

We further tested the therapeutic potential of CPE against breast cancerin the Sprague-Dawley NMU-induced model of breast cancer. Becausenumerous tissues in the body express claudins 3 and 4, systemicadministration of CPE by routes such as intravenous, intramuscular, andoral may result in high systemic toxicity and greatly limit therapeuticefficacy. Therefore, the anti-tumor potential of CPE in vivo was testedusing a novel intraductal (ID) administration approach (U.S. Pat. No.6,330,472 to Sukumar et al., issued Dec. 11, 2001) through the teat inorder to limit systemic toxicity and provide more direct access of CPEto the tumor thereby increasing therapeutic efficacy. At 3-6 weeks ofage, female Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with 50 mg/kg NMU i.p.Mammary tumors developed within several months. CPE was administered IDat various concentrations once tumors grew to a size of 100 mm³. Threeinjections of 17 ug CPE over the course of 2 weeks prevented tumorgrowth (FIG. 6 a) while an untreated tumor in the same animal grew toapproximately 12.5 times the size (FIG. 6 b). Increasing theconcentration of CPE to 30 ug per injection while delivering 8injections over the course of 4 weeks resulted in a reduction in tumorvolume (FIGS. 6 c,d). Concurrently, an untreated tumor in the sameanimal grew to more than 100 times the size. Further, CPE treatment ledto significant tumor necrosis as evidenced by histological examinationfollowing Hematoxylin and Eosin staining. This experiment wassubsequently repeated using native CPE, which has 10-fold higheractivity that the recombinant CPE used previously. CPE was administeredID at 3 or 5 μg per injection once every three days for 30 daysbeginning once tumors reached a size of 100 mm³. Treatment with 5 μg CPEsignificantly inhibited the growth of tumors relative to untreatedcontrols (FIG. 7). Although CPE administration of doses used in thisexperiment given i.p. are known to elicit system toxicity, no evidenceof adverse reaction was observed in any of the treated animals. Thisexample demonstrates that ID administration of CPE results in cytolysisof rat mammary tumors concurrent with a reduction in tumor volumewithout any evidence of systemic toxicity.

Example 14 Treatment of Metastatic Epithelial Cancers

Patients afflicted with cancer frequently die from metastasis to vitalorgans. Breast, lung, colon, kidney, and skin cancer patients frequentlydie from neurological complications resulting from metastases to thebrain or bone. Other carcinomas have been reported to metastasize to thebrain and bone as well, including those of prostate, pancreas, etc.Breast, lung, colon, kidney, prostate, and pancreas cancer cells allexpress claudins 3 and 4 whereas the cell types of the brain and bone donot. Thus, intracranial and intraosteal administration of CPE is used toeliminate cancer cells or metastatic tumors expressing claudin 3 and/or4 while leaving brain or bone cells unharmed. In other words, targetingclaudins 3 and 4 with CPE may provide a means of eliminating thesemetastases from the brain without damaging the brain itself. Forexample, in a case of breast cancer metastasis to the brain, astereotactic injection of purified full-length CPE is administereddirectly to the site of the tumor. Injection is made through a smallopening in the skull and guided with the aid of imaging equipment (e.g.CT scan, etc.). Tumor volume is measured via imaging (e.g. CT scan, PETscan, etc.) and repeated injections are administered as needed.Similarly, a micropump or CPE-saturated wafer may be implanted for slowdrug release at the tumor site.

By immunohistochemical analysis, we found that claudin 3 and/or 4 wereexpressed in brain metastases from various primary tumors includingthose of breast (9/9), lung (7/7), colon (3/4), ovarian (1/2), andprostate (1/1). In contrast, sections of normal brain tissue obtainedfrom hemispherectomy was negative for claudin 3 and 4 expression. Tofurther explore the expression of CLDN 3 and 4 in brain cells weobtained a culture of primary human astrocytes. As determined by Westernblot analysis, normal human astrocytes showed no expression of CLDN 3 or4. Correspondingly, we found that these cells were unaffected by CPEtreatment in vitro.

We next tested the toxicity of CPE to the brain using athymic nude andBalb/C mice. Mice were administered doses of CPE ranging from 0.05-10 ugthree days a week for two weeks by direct intracranial injection 2 mmposterior to the coronal suture and 2 mm lateral to the sagittal suture.The maximum tolerated dose of CPE was 0.5 ug native toxin. One group ofmice were observed for a period of two months for any signs of illnessor neurological complications including sluggishness, lack of grooming,huddling, weight loss, and hemiparesis. A second group of mice weresacrificed at two weeks, brains were removed, and sections of braintissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin were analyzed by aneuropathologist. Mice treated with 0.5 ug CPE did not show any signs oftoxicity or neurological damage as determined by daily observation oranalysis of brain tissue sections.

Next, a mouse model of human breast cancer metastasis to the brain inathymic nude mice was generated. The injection of 250,000 MDA-MB-468cells intracranially 2 mm posterior to the coronal suture and 2 mmlateral to the sagittal suture resulted in death at 18 days on average.Using this model, the efficacy of CPE in the treatment of breast cancermetastasis to the brain was tested. MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells wereinjected into the brains of athymic nude mice. Following solid tumorformation, mice received intracranial injections of 0.5 ug CPE or PBSthree times per week for 2 weeks. Mice were observed on a daily basisfor signs of neurological complication resulting from tumor burden andwere sacrificed when moribund. Mice receiving PBS began to show signs ofexcessive tumor burden on day 10 and did not survive beyond day 17. Micethat received CPE did not begin to show signs of illness until day 14and 20% of mice survived beyond 40 days (FIG. 8). Thus, intracranialadministration of CPE eliminated or delayed the growth of brainmetastases.

Example 15 Development of Variant Forms of CPE for Use in Breast CancerTreatment

Using PCR, a CPE cDNA molecule encoding all but the N-terminal 45 aminoacids of CPE is generated This variant is known to exhibit twice thecytotoxicity of full-length CPE and is tested in all studies previouslyusing full-length CPE as outlined in previous examples.

CPE or a variant of CPE is conjugated to a linker rendering it unable tolyse cells expressing claudin 3 and/or 4 until the linker isenzymatically cleaved. The inactivation takes place by preventingbinding to claudin 3 and/or 4, preventing cytotoxic activity followingreceptor binding, etc. The linker contains a sequence cleaved by aprotease (e.g. matrix metalloproteases, serine proteases, etc.) that isover-expressed by tumors expressing Claudin 3 and/or 4 (including, butnot limited to breast, lung, prostate, kidney, pancreas, etc.), tumorstromal elements, or tumor vasculature. This system of activation allowssystemic administration of CPE and specific targeting of cancer cellswhile preventing systemic toxicity.

While the invention has been described in terms of its preferredembodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that the inventioncan be practiced with modification within the spirit and scope of theappended claims. Accordingly, the present invention should not belimited to the embodiments as described above, but should furtherinclude all modifications and equivalents thereof within the spirit andscope of the description provided herein.

1. A method for diagnosing cancer or metastasis in a patient in needthereof, comprising the steps of determining a level of expression of atleast one claudin in cells of interest, wherein said at least oneclaudin is selected from the group consisting of claudin 1, claudin 3,claudin 4, and claudin 7, and assessing whether claudins 3 or 4 areexpressed at a level which is higher than a predetermined level, orwhether or not claudins 1 or 7 are expressed at a level which is lowerthan a predetermined level, where cancer or metastasis is implicatedwhen claudins 3 or 4 are at or above said level which is higher thatsaid predetermined level, or when claudins 1 or 7 are at or below saidlevel which is lower than said predetermined level.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said cancer or metastasis is selected from the groupconsisting of breast cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, kidney cancer,prostate cancer, pancreas cancer, ovarian cancer, thyroid cancer,gastric cancer, head and neck cancer, and skin cancer.
 3. The method ofclaim 1 wherein said step of determining is carried out by exposing saidcells of interest to at least one antibody recognizing a claudin.
 4. Themethod of claim 3, wherein said at least one antibody includes anantibody recognizing claudin 1, claudin 3, claudin 4, or combinationsthereof.
 5. The method of claim 3, wherein said at least one antibody toa claudin includes an antibody recognizing a C-terminal region ofCLDN-7.
 6. The method of claim 3, wherein said antibody is an antibodyrecognizing SEQ ID NO.
 1. 7. The method of claim 1 further comprisingthe step of obtaining a sample of said cells of interest from saidpatient.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein said sample is a biopsytissue sample.
 9. The method of claim 7, wherein said sample comprisescells from ductal lavage fluid.
 10. The method of claim 7, wherein saidat least one claudin is claudin 3 or claudin 4, or both claudins 3 and4, and said sample is blood.
 11. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising the step of determining a grade of a sample containing saidcells of interest based on an assessment made in said assessing step,and wherein said grade is high if claudin 7 expression is low, or low ifclaudin 7 expression is high.
 12. A method of killing cancer cells thatexpress claudin-3 or claudin-4 or both claudin-3 and claudin-4,comprising the step of exposing said cancer cells to moleculesrecognizing claudin-3 or claudin-4, wherein said molecules kill saidcancer cells or deliver cytotoxic agents that kill said cancer cells.13. The method of claim 12, wherein said molecules include Clostridiumperfringens enterotoxin in quantities sufficient to lyse said cancercells.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein said Clostridium perfringensenterotoxin is truncated by 45 amino acids at the amino terminus. 15.The method of claim 13, wherein said Clostridium perfringens enterotoxinis encapsulated in vessels selected from the group consisting ofliposomes, biodegradable synthetic polymer wafers, and micro-spheres.16. The method of claim 13, wherein said Clostridium perfringensenterotoxin is in the form of a chimeric protein comprising a matrixmetalloprotease that is over-expressed by breast tumors.
 17. The methodof claim 12, wherein said molecules include antibodies recognizingclaudin-3 or claudin-4.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein saidantibodies recognizing claudin-3 or claudin-4 are attached to cytotoxicagents that kill cancer cells.
 19. The method of claim 12 wherein saidcytotoxic agents that kill cancer cells are contained in vesselsselected from the group consisting of liposomes, biodegradable syntheticpolymer wafers, and micro-spheres.
 20. The method of claim 19, whereinantibodies recognizing claudin-3 or claudin-4 are attached to saidvessels.
 21. The method of claim 12, wherein said cancer cells areprimary or metastatic cancer cells selected from the group consisting ofbreast cancer cells, lung cancer cells, colon cancer cells, kidneycancer cells, prostate cancer cells, pancreas cancer cells, ovariancancer cells, thyroid cancer cells, gastric cancer cells, head and neckcancer cells, and skin cancer cells.
 22. The method of claim 12, whereinsaid cancer cells are metastatic cancer cells.
 23. The method of claim22, wherein said metastatic cancer cells are located in a patient'sbrain or bone.